Methods for sealing microcell containers with phenethylamine mixtures

ABSTRACT

A method for sealing a container having an opening by contacting the opening with a mixture including a phenethylamine and a first polymer, adding a fluid to be contained to the container, and then adding a second mixture, comprising a second polymer, whereupon an interaction between the first and second polymer mixtures result in a seal being formed over the opening, thereby containing the fluid. The first polymer is typically a water-swellable polymer and the second polymer is typically a hydrophilic polymer that will form an interpenetrating network with the swellable polymer.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No.62/248,338, filed Oct. 30, 2016, which is incorporated herein byreference in its entirety.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates to methods for sealing containers using mixturesof phenethylamines, water swellable polymers, and hydrophilic polymers.In preferred embodiments, combinations of dopamine and swellablepolymers, such as poly(vinylpyrrolindone), can be used to coat a widevariety of containers whereupon the container can be sealed by adding asecond mixture comprising a hydrophilic polymer. In an embodiment, amixture of phenethylamines and swellable polymers can be used to seal amicrocell structure by interlocking a hydrophilic polymer coating to themicrocell opening. Such microcells may be filled with an electrophoreticmedium suitable for use in a display.

BACKGROUND

Particle-based electrophoretic displays have been the subject of intenseresearch and development for a number of years. In such displays, aplurality of charged particles (sometimes referred to as pigmentparticles) move through a fluid under the influence of an electricfield. Electrophoretic displays can have attributes of good brightnessand contrast, wide viewing angles, state bistability, and low powerconsumption when compared with liquid crystal displays.

Numerous patents and applications assigned to or in the names of theMassachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and E Ink Corporationdescribe various technologies used in encapsulated electrophoretic andother electro-optic media. Such encapsulated media comprise numeroussmall capsules, each of which itself comprises an internal phasecontaining electrophoretically-mobile particles in a fluid medium, and acapsule wall surrounding the internal phase. Typically, the capsules arethemselves held within a polymeric binder to form a coherent layerpositioned between two electrodes. The technologies described in thesepatents and applications include:

-   -   (a) Electrophoretic particles, fluids and fluid additives; see        for example U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,002,728 and 7,679,814;    -   (b) Capsules, binders and encapsulation processes; see for        example U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,922,276 and 7,411,719;    -   (c) Films and sub-assemblies containing electro-optic materials;        see for example U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,982,178 and 7,839,564;    -   (d) Backplanes, adhesive layers and other auxiliary layers and        methods used in displays; see for example U.S. Pat. Nos.        7,116,318 and 7,535,624;    -   (e) Color formation and color adjustment; see for example U.S.        Pat. Nos. 6,017,584; 6,664,944; 6,864,875; 7,075,502; 7,167,155;        7,667,684; 7,791,789; 7,956,841; 8,040,594; 8,054,526;        8,098,418; 8,213,076; and 8,363,299; and U.S. Patent        Applications Publication Nos. 2004/0263947; 2007/0109219;        2007/0223079; 2008/0023332; 2008/0043318; 2008/0048970;        2009/0004442; 2009/0225398; 2010/0103502; 2010/0156780;        2011/0164307; 2011/0195629; 2011/0310461; 2012/0008188;        2012/0019898; 2012/0075687; 2012/0081779; 2012/0134009;        2012/0182597; 2012/0212462; 2012/0157269; and 2012/0326957;    -   (f) Methods for driving displays; see for example U.S. Pat. Nos.        7,012,600 and 7,453,445.    -   (g) Applications of displays; see for example U.S. Pat. Nos.        7,312,784 and 8,009,348; and    -   (h) Non-electrophoretic displays, as described in U.S. Pat. Nos.        6,241,921; 6,950,220; 7,420,549 and 8,319,759; and U.S. Patent        Application Publication No. 2012/0293858.

Although electrophoretic media are often opaque (since, for example, inmany electrophoretic media, the particles substantially blocktransmission of visible light through the display) and operate in areflective mode, many electrophoretic displays can be made to operate ina so-called shutter mode in which one display state is substantiallyopaque and one is light-transmissive. See, for example, U.S. Pat. Nos.5,872,552; 6,130,774; 6,144,361; 6,172,798; 6,271,823; 6,225,971; and6,184,856. Dielectrophoretic displays, which are similar toelectrophoretic displays but rely upon variations in electric fieldstrength, can operate in a similar mode; see U.S. Pat. No. 4,418,346.Other types of electro-optic displays may also be capable of operatingin shutter mode. Electro-optic media operating in shutter mode can beused in multi-layer structures for full color displays; in suchstructures, at least one layer adjacent the viewing surface of thedisplay operates in shutter mode to expose or conceal a second layermore distant from the viewing surface.

An encapsulated electrophoretic display typically does not suffer fromthe clustering and settling failure mode of traditional electrophoreticdevices and provides further advantages, such as the ability to print orcoat the display on a wide variety of flexible and rigid substrates.(Use of the word printing is intended to include all forms of printingand coating, including, but without limitation: pre-metered coatingssuch as patch die coating, slot or extrusion coating, slide or cascadecoating, curtain coating; roll coating such as knife over roll coating,forward and reverse roll coating; gravure coating; dip coating; spraycoating; meniscus coating; spin coating; brush coating; air knifecoating; silk screen printing processes; electrostatic printingprocesses; thermal printing processes; ink jet printing processes;electrophoretic deposition (See U.S. Pat. No. 7,339,715); and othersimilar techniques.) Thus, the resulting display can be flexible.Further, because the display medium can be printed (using a variety ofmethods), the display itself can be made inexpensively.

A related type of electrophoretic display is a so-called microcellelectrophoretic display. In a microcell electrophoretic display, thecharged particles and the fluid are not encapsulated withinmicrocapsules but instead are retained within a plurality of cavitiesformed within a carrier medium, typically a polymeric film. See, forexample, U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,672,921 and 6,788,449.

The aforementioned U.S. Pat. No. 6,982,178 describes a method ofassembling a solid electro-optic display (including an encapsulatedelectrophoretic display) which is well adapted for mass production.Essentially, this patent describes a so-called front plane laminate(FPL) which comprises, in order, a light-transmissiveelectrically-conductive layer; a layer of a solid electro-optic mediumin electrical contact with the electrically-conductive layer; anadhesive layer; and a release sheet. Typically, the light-transmissiveelectrically-conductive layer will be carried on a light-transmissivesubstrate, which is preferably flexible, in the sense that the substratecan be manually wrapped around a drum (say) 10 inches (254 mm) indiameter without permanent deformation. The term light-transmissive isused in this patent and herein to mean that the layer thus designatedtransmits sufficient light to enable an observer, looking through thatlayer, to observe the change in display states of the electro-opticmedium, which will normally be viewed through theelectrically-conductive layer and adjacent substrate (if present); incases where the electro-optic medium displays a change in reflectivityat non-visible wavelengths, the term light-transmissive should of coursebe interpreted to refer to transmission of the relevant non-visiblewavelengths. The substrate will typically be a polymeric film, and willnormally have a thickness in the range of about 1 to about 25 mil (25 to634 μm), preferably about 2 to about 10 mil (51 to 254 μm). Theelectrically-conductive layer is conveniently a thin metal or metaloxide layer of, for example, aluminum or ITO, or may be a conductivepolymer. Poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) films coated with aluminumor ITO are available commercially, for example as aluminized Mylar(Mylar is a Registered Trade Mark) from E.I. du Pont de Nemours &Company, Wilmington Del., and such commercial materials may be used withgood results in the front plane laminate.

Assembly of an electro-optic display using such a front plane laminatemay be effected by removing the release sheet from the front planelaminate and contacting the adhesive layer with the backplane underconditions effective to cause the adhesive layer to adhere to thebackplane, thereby securing the adhesive layer, layer of electro-opticmedium and electrically-conductive layer to the backplane. This processis well-adapted to mass production since the front plane laminate may bemass produced, typically using roll-to-roll coating techniques, and thencut into pieces of any size needed for use with specific backplanes.

U.S. Pat. No. 7,561,324 describes a so-called double release sheet whichis essentially a simplified version of the front plane laminate of theaforementioned U.S. Pat. No. 6,982,178. One form of the double releasesheet comprises a layer of a solid electro-optic medium sandwichedbetween two adhesive layers, one or both of the adhesive layers beingcovered by a release sheet. Another form of the double release sheetcomprises a layer of a solid electro-optic medium sandwiched between tworelease sheets. Both forms of the double release film are intended foruse in a process generally similar to the process for assembling anelectro-optic display from a front plane laminate already described, butinvolving two separate laminations; typically, in a first lamination thedouble release sheet is laminated to a front electrode to form a frontsub-assembly, and then in a second lamination the front sub-assembly islaminated to a backplane to form the final display, although the orderof these two laminations could be reversed if desired.

U.S. Pat. No. 7,839,564 describes a so-called inverted front planelaminate, which is a variant of the front plane laminate described inthe aforementioned U.S. Pat. No. 6,982,178. This inverted front planelaminate comprises, in order, at least one of a light-transmissiveprotective layer and a light-transmissive electrically-conductive layer;an adhesive layer; a layer of a solid electro-optic medium; and arelease sheet. This inverted front plane laminate is used to form anelectro-optic display having a layer of lamination adhesive between theelectro-optic layer and the front electrode or front substrate; asecond, typically thin layer of adhesive may or may not be presentbetween the electro-optic layer and a backplane. Such electro-opticdisplays can combine good resolution with good low temperatureperformance.

As indicated above most simple prior art electrophoretic mediaessentially display only two colors. Such electrophoretic media eitheruse a single type of electrophoretic particle having a first color in acolored fluid having a second, different color (in which case, the firstcolor is displayed when the particles lie adjacent the viewing surfaceof the display and the second color is displayed when the particles arespaced from the viewing surface), or first and second types ofelectrophoretic particles having differing first and second colors in anuncolored fluid (in which case, the first color is displayed when thefirst type of particles lie adjacent the viewing surface of the displayand the second color is displayed when the second type of particles lieadjacent the viewing surface). Typically the two colors are black andwhite. If a full color display is desired, a color filter array may bedeposited over the viewing surface of the monochrome (black and white)display. Displays with color filter arrays rely on area sharing andcolor blending to create color stimuli. The available display area isshared between three or four primary colors such as red/green/blue (RGB)or red/green/blue/white (RGBW), and the filters can be arranged inone-dimensional (stripe) or two-dimensional (2×2) repeat patterns. Otherchoices of primary colors or more than three primaries are also known inthe art. The three (in the case of RGB displays) or four (in the case ofRGBW displays) sub-pixels are chosen small enough so that at theintended viewing distance they visually blend together to a single pixelwith a uniform color stimulus (‘color blending’). The inherentdisadvantage of area sharing is that the colorants are always present,and colors can only be modulated by switching the corresponding pixelsof the underlying monochrome display to white or black (switching thecorresponding primary colors on or off). For example, in an ideal RGBWdisplay, each of the red, green, blue and white primaries occupy onefourth of the display area (one sub-pixel out of four), with the whitesub-pixel being as bright as the underlying monochrome display white,and each of the colored sub-pixels being no lighter than one third ofthe monochrome display white. The brightness of the white color shown bythe display as a whole cannot be more than one half of the brightness ofthe white sub-pixel (white areas of the display are produced bydisplaying the one white sub-pixel out of each four, plus each coloredsub-pixel in its colored form being equivalent to one third of a whitesub-pixel, so the three colored sub-pixels combined contribute no morethan the one white sub-pixel). The brightness and saturation of colorsis lowered by area-sharing with color pixels switched to black. Areasharing is especially problematic when mixing yellow because it islighter than any other color of equal brightness, and saturated yellowis almost as bright as white. Switching the blue pixels (one fourth ofthe display area) to black makes the yellow too dark.

U.S. Pat. Nos. 8,576,476 and 8,797,634 describe multicolorelectrophoretic displays having a single back plane comprisingindependently addressable pixel electrodes and a common,light-transmissive front electrode. Between the back plane and the frontelectrode is disposed a plurality of electrophoretic layers. Displaysdescribed in these applications are capable of rendering any of theprimary colors (red, green, blue, cyan, magenta, yellow, white andblack) at any pixel location. However, there are disadvantages to theuse of multiple electrophoretic layers located between a single set ofaddressing electrodes. The electric field experienced by the particlesin a particular layer is lower than would be the case for a singleelectrophoretic layer addressed with the same voltage. In addition,optical losses in an electrophoretic layer closest to the viewingsurface (for example, caused by light scattering or unwanted absorption)may affect the appearance of images formed in underlying electrophoreticlayers.

Attempts have been made to provide full-color electrophoretic displaysusing a single electrophoretic layer. For example, U.S. PatentApplication Publication No. 2013/0208338 describes a color displaycomprising an electrophoretic fluid which comprises one or two types ofpigment particles dispersed in a clear and colorless or colored solvent,the electrophoretic fluid being sandwiched between a common electrodeand a plurality of driving electrodes. The driving electrodes are keptat a certain distance in order to expose a background layer. U.S. Pat.No. 8,917,439 describes a method for driving a display cell filled withan electrophoretic fluid comprising two types of charged particlescarrying opposite charge polarities and of two contrast colors. The twotypes of pigment particles are dispersed in a colored solvent or in asolvent with non-charged or slightly charged colored particles dispersedtherein. The method comprises driving the display cell to display thecolor of the solvent or the color of the non-charged or slightly chargedcolored particles by applying a driving voltage which is about 1 toabout 20% of the full driving voltage. U.S. Patent ApplicationPublication No. 2014/0092465 and 2014/0092466 describe anelectrophoretic fluid, and a method for driving an electrophoreticdisplay. The fluid comprises first, second and thirds type of pigmentparticles, all of which are dispersed in a solvent or solvent mixture.The first and second types of pigment particles carry opposite chargepolarities, and the third type of pigment particles has a charge levelbeing less than about 50% of the charge level of the first or secondtype. The three types of pigment particles have different levels ofthreshold voltage, or different levels of mobility, or both. None ofthese patent applications disclose full color display in the sense inwhich that term is used below. See also U.S. Pat. No. 8,031,392 and U.S.Patent Publication No. 2014/0340430; the latter describes a full colordisplay using three different types of particles in a colored fluid, butthe presence of the colored fluid limits the quality of the white statewhich can be achieved by the display.

U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,961,804 and 5,930,026 describe microencapsulatedelectrophoretic image displays (EPIDs). These displays have asubstantially two dimensional arrangement of microcapsules eachcontaining an electrophoretic composition comprising a dielectric fluidwith charged pigment particles suspended therein and the particlesvisually contrast with the dielectric solvent. The microcapsules can beformed by interfacial polymerization, in-situ polymerization or otherknown methods such as in-liquid curing or simple/complex coacervation.The microcapsules, after their formation, may be injected into a cellhousing two spaced-apart electrodes, or they may be “printed” onto orcoated on a transparent conductor film. The microcapsules may also beimmobilized within a transparent matrix or binder that is itselfsandwiched between the two electrodes.

An alternative method for encapsulating electrophoretic media wasdisclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,930,818 and 6,933,098. The cells of theimproved EPID are formed from a plurality of microcells that are formedintegrally with one another as portions of a structured two-dimensionalarray assembly. Each microcell of the array assembly is filled with asuspension or dispersion of charged pigment particles in a dielectricsolvent, and sealed to form an electrophoretic cell.

Various adhesives are disclosed for use in sealing microcells, such asdescribed in U.S. Pat. No. 8,361,356. For example, mixtures ofthermoplastic polymers can be used to seal an electrophoretic mediuminto a microcell. Exemplary thermoplastic polymers include di-block,tri-block or multi-block copolymers represented by the formulas ABA or(AB)n in which A is styrene, methylstyrene, ethylene, or propylene; B isbutadiene, isoprene, ethylene, propylene, butylene, dimethylsiloxane orpropylene sulfide, wherein A and B cannot be the same in the formula.The number, n, is preferably 1-10. Representative copolymers includepoly-(styrene-b-butadiene), poly(styrene-b-butadiene-b-styrene),poly(styrene-b-isoprene-b-styrene),poly(styrene-b-ethylene/butylene-b-styrene),poly(styrene-b-dimethylsiloxane-dimethylsiloxane-b-styrene),poly((a-methylstyrene-b-isoprene),poly(a-methylstyrene-b-isoprene-b-a-methylstyrene),poly(a-methylstyrene-b-propylene sulfide-b-a-methylstyrene), andpoly(a-methylstyrene-b-dimethylsiloxane-b-a-methylstyrene). Typically,the thermoplastic elastomer is dissolved in a solvent or solvent mixturethat is immiscible with the electrophoretic display fluid, and exhibitsa specific gravity equal to or less than that of the display fluid, soas to keep the elastomer from sinking below the electrophoretic fluidduring manufacture. Low surface tension solvents are also preferred forthe sealing composition because of their better wetting properties overthe microcells filled with electrophoretic display fluid.

While these thermoplastic methods are suitable for some construction ofmicrocell encapsulated media, they have some drawbacks. In particular,the thermoplastic polymers may be dissolved by the electrophoreticmedium over time, resulting in leaking electrophoretic media anddecreased performance by the electrophoretic medium due to trace levelsof dissolved thermoplastics. This problem may be counteracted byincreasing the hydrophilicity of the thermoplastics, therebydiscouraging solvation of the thermoplastics by the electrophoreticmedia. Such modifications can be achieved by changing functional groupsor blocks in the thermoplastic monomers. However, increasing thehydrophilicity decreases adhesion of the thermoplastic to the microcellmaterial, which is also, typically, a thermoplastic polymer. Thedecreased adhesion may result in delamination of the encapsulated mediain the final display.

SUMMARY OF INVENTION

The invention provides a widely-applicable method for sealing acontainer having an opening, and one well-suited for sealing containerswith small openings such as the microcell structures described in theBackground. In general, the method involves contacting the opening witha mixture including a phenethylamine and a first polymer, and thenadding a fluid to be contained to the container. After adding the fluid,a second mixture, comprising a second polymer, is introduced, whereuponthe interactions between the first and second polymer mixtures result ina seal being formed over the opening, thereby containing the fluid.Typically, the phenethylamine in the first mixture is dopamine or aphenethylamine with a structure similar to dopamine, such asepinephrine, phenylephrine, norepinephrine, or3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine. The first polymer in the first mixture istypically a polymer that swells in an aqueous environment, such as apyrrolidone, a polysaccharide, a collagen, a polyamide, a polyester, anacrylate, a polyurethane, a polyether, e.g., polyethylene glycol, or apolyvinyl alcohol. The second polymer is typically hydrophilic, such ascellulose, methylcellulose, polyethylene glycol, polyvinyl alcohol, anacrylic, or an acrylamide. When the first and second polymers interact,they form an interconnected network, e.g., via covalent bonding,cross-linking, intermingling, or interpenetrating. In many instances,where the opening is sufficiently small, it is unnecessary to provide a“lid” to cover the opening because a cured mixture of the first andsecond polymers provides sufficient structure to contain the fluidwithin the container.

The methods described in this application are sufficiently robust thatthe methods can be used to seal a variety of containers with a robustseal. In most instances, it is sufficient to clean the surfaces of thecontainer (broadly referred to a substrate), coat a surface adjacent anopening with a first mixture including a phenethylamine and a firstpolymer, fill the container with a fluid to be contained within, andthen introduce a second polymer mixture to seal the opening. In someembodiments, a physical barrier, e.g., a lid may also be used to sealthe container. The methods can be used to seal containers constructedfrom a variety of materials, including metals, plastics, papers, andbiological polymers such as collagen or cellulose.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is generalized depiction of a method of the invention, wherein acontainer is contacted with a first mixture comprising a phenethylamineand a first polymer, the container is filled, and the filled containersubsequently sealed by contacting the filled container with a secondmixture. In an alternate embodiment, a substrate (e.g., a lid) is alsobonded to the opening;

FIG. 2 shows an embodiment of the invention wherein microcells arefilled with a medium and then sealed;

FIG. 3 shows cross sections of an embodiment of the invention whereinmicrocells are filled with a medium and then sealed;

FIGS. 4A and 4B detail an embodiment in which microcells are fabricatedusing photolithographic exposure through a photomask of a conductor filmcoated with a thermoset precursor;

FIGS. 5A and 5B detail an alternate embodiment in which microcells arefabricated using photolithography. In FIGS. 5A and 5B a combination oftop and bottom exposure is used, allowing the walls in one lateraldirection to be cured by top photomask exposure, and the walls inanother lateral direction to be cured bottom exposure through the opaquebase conductor film;

FIGS. 6A-6D illustrate the steps of assembling a monochrome displayusing the method of the invention;

FIGS. 7A and 7B illustrate two embodiments of multi-color displays thatcan be fabricated using the methods of the invention;

FIG. 8 compares the adhesion strength of various polymer combinationsthat can be used with methods of the invention;

FIG. 9 shows the color gamut size for electrophoretic displays sealedwith various polymer combinations described herein;

FIGS. 10A and 10B show changes in the color gamut for colorelectrophoretic displays sealed with different combinations of polymers.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

As indicated above, the present invention provides a method for sealinga container having an opening. The method comprises contacting theopening with a mixture including a phenethylamine and a first polymer,and then adding a fluid to be contained to the container. After addingthe fluid, a second mixture, comprising a second polymer, is introduced,whereupon the interactions between the first and second polymer mixturesresult in a seal being formed over the opening, thereby containing thefluid. The first polymer is typically a water swellable polymer and thesecond polymer is typically a hydrophilic polymer that will form aninterpenetrating network with the swellable polymer.

The invention uses a first mixture comprising a phenethylamine and afirst polymer. In general, a phenethylamine suitable for use in theinvention is a molecule of Formula 1,

wherein n is 1 or 2, provided that if n is 2, the hydroxyl groupscoupled to the aromatic ring are ortho to each other, and wherein eachof R₁, R₂, R₃, R₄, R₅, and R₆ is independently selected from the groupconsisting of a thiol, a primary amine, a secondary amine, a nitrile, analdehyde, an imidazole, an anazide, a halide, a hydrogen, a hydroxyl, acarboxylic acid, an aldehyde, a carboxylic ester or a carboxamide. Forexample, the phenethylamine may be dopamine, epinephrine, phenylephrine,norepinephrine, 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine, or 3,4-dihydroxyphenylaceticacid. For example, the phenethylamine may be of Formulas 2, 3, or 4,

provided that the hydroxyl groups coupled to the aromatic ring inFormula 2 are ortho to each other, and wherein each of R₁; R₂, R₃, R₄,R₅, and R₆ is independently selected from the group consisting of athiol, a primary amine, a secondary amine, a nitrile, an aldehyde, animidazole, anazide, a halide, a hydrogen, a hydroxyl, a carboxylic acid,an aldehyde, a carboxylic ester or a carboxamide. In some embodiments ofFormulas 1-4, R₁ and R₃ are hydrogens. In some embodiments, R₂ and R₄are hydrogens. In some embodiments, R₅ and R₆ are hydrogens. In someembodiments, R₁-R₆ are hydrogens. In some embodiments one of R₁-R₄ is ahydroxyl.

In most uses of the invention, the first mixture, used to coat a portionof the container adjacent an opening comprises a phenethylamine and afirst polymer that swells with the introduction of water. For example,the first polymer may be pyrrolidones, polysaccharides, collagen,polyamides, polyesters, acrylates, polyethers, polyvinyl alcohols, andpolyurethanes. In some embodiments, the first polymer ispoly(vinylpyrrolidone) (PVP). Once a portion of the container is coatedwith the first mixture, the container is filled with a fluid that is tobe contained within the container, and then the opening that is to besealed is coated with a second polymer mixture. In some embodiments, thesecond polymer mixture comprises a hydrophilic polymer, such ascellulose, methylcellulose, polyethylene glycol, polyvinyl alcohols, anacrylic, a polyurethane, or an acrylamide. A container suitable for usewith the invention may be constructed from a variety of materials,including metals, plastics, papers, and biological polymers such ascollagen or cellulose. For example, an embossed set of containers may beconstructed from acrylates, (meth)acrylates, vinylethers, esters,epoxides, polyethylene terephthalate (PET), high-density polyethylene(HDPE), polypropylene (PPE), or polyvinyl chloride (PVC). In someembodiments, each small container may be part of a network, e.g. amicrocell, as shown in FIG. 2.

The methods of using the invention are illustrated in FIGS. 1-3. Ingeneral, as shown in FIG. 1, the method involves providing a container(100) and then coating the container (100) with a first mixturecomprising a phenethylamine and a first polymer mixture (120). Prior tocoating, it may be beneficial to clean the container with soaps, organicsolvents, acid, bases, ion etching, chemical etching or plasmas. Oncecoated, the first mixture may be dried and/or cured, as needed, toprepare the first mixture (120) for interaction with the fluid (140)that is to be held in the container. In preferred embodiments, the firstpolymer mixture (120) is immiscible with the fluid (140). Once thecontainer (100) coated with the first polymer mixture (120) has beenfilled with the fluid (140), the filled container can be overcoated witha second polymer (160) that interacts with the first polymer mixture(120) to seal the fluid (140) inside the container (100). The filledcontainer, overcoated with the second polymer may be cured or dried,such as using heat, radiation, ultraviolet light, or some combinationthereof. In some embodiments, a lid (180) may also be used to seal thecontainer. Typically, the lid (180) will also be coated with the firstpolymer mixture (120) whereby it, too, will interact with the secondpolymer (160) to create a strong seal to the container (100).

Of particular importance in the field of electrophoretic displays, themethods of the invention can be used to seal an electrophoretic mediumwithin a microcell structure, whose fabrication is described below. Asshown in FIG. 2, a microcell structure may be provided and the microcellstructure is entirely coated with, or surface coated with, a firstpolymer mixture, for example a mixture of polydopamine andpoly(vinylpyrrolidone). In some instances, the microcell structure isimmersed in the first polymer mixture, in other instances, the firstpolymer mixture is only coated on the upper surface of the microcellstructure, for example, using an applicator or via contact printing.Once the first polymer mixture has been deposited on the microcellstructure, the microcells are filled, and the filled microcell structureis over-coated with a second polymer, such as a hydroxymethylcellulosesolution, which creates a robust seal on the microcell structure. Thesame methods can be used to seal containers that are not microcells,however, such as capsules comprising medicaments, e.g., delayed releasedrug formulations, or blister packs for sealing tablets. Otherapplications include preparing arrays of fluids that can act as achemical transducer which may be coupled to a detector to make achemical sensor.

As detailed in FIG. 3, the final seal is formed due to interactionsbetween the swellable polymers and the hydrophilic second polymer. Thephenethylamine, for example polydopamine, anchors the swellable polymer,such as poly(vinylpyrrolidone), to the container structure, so that thefinal sealing layer, for example, hydroxymethylcellulose is bound to thecontainer. The nature of the interaction between the swellable polymerand hydrophilic polymer need not be limited to a particular interaction,and is likely some combination of covalent bonding, van der Waalsforces, and steric restriction as the final coating layer dries and/orcures.

To achieve a high-quality display, the sealing layer must have at leastthe following characteristics: (1) free of defects such as entrapped airbubble, pin holes, cracking or leaking, etc.; (2) good film integrityand barrier properties against the display fluid; and (3) good coatingand adhesion properties. All of these requirements were achieved byusing the methods described herein.

While seemingly simple, the disclosed sealing system is remarkablyrobust. Furthermore, the seal is the result of complex interactionsbetween the various components. That is, samples sealed with onlyportions of the first polymer solution do not provide adequate sealing.For example, test microcells functionalized with O₂ plasma, alone,polydopamine (PDA), alone, poly(vinylpyrrolidone) (PVP), alone, orhydroxymethylcellulose (HPMC), alone, did not show good adhesiveproperties as determined via peel testing (see Example). When appliedprior to filling the test microcells, none of these treatments increasedthe adhesion of a final HPMC layer to filled microcells.

In general, a variety of rapidly water swellable polymers may be usedwith the phenethylamine provided that the polymers are miscible withHPMC. For example, filled microcell samples, coated with PDA/PEOmixtures or PDA/HPMC mixtures, show increased adhesion to a HPMC sealcoat, while samples coated with PDA/polystyrenesuflonate, which is notmiscible with HPMC, did not.

Preparation of a Microcell Array for an EPID.

When used to construct an electrophoretic display, the substrate uponwhich the microcells are formed typically includes a display addressingarray comprising a pre-formed conductor film, such as ITO conductorlines. The conductor film is coated with a radiation curable polymerprecursor layer. The film and precursor layer are then exposed imagewiseto radiation to form the microcell wall structure. Following exposure,the precursor material is removed from the unexposed areas, leaving thecured microcell walls bonded to the conductor film/support web. Theimagewise exposure may be accomplished by UV or other forms of radiationthrough a photomask to produce an image or predetermined pattern ofexposure of the radiation curable material coated on the conductor film.Although it is generally not required, the mask may be positioned andaligned with respect to the conductor film, i.e., ITO lines, so that thetransparent mask portions align with the spaces between ITO lines, andthe opaque mask portions align with the ITO material (intended formicrocell cell floor areas).

The manufacture of a monochrome electrophoretic display (EPID) from amicrocell assembly involves filling the microcells with a single pigmentsuspension composition, sealing the microcells, and finally laminatingthe sealed array of microcells with a second conductor film pre-coatedwith an adhesive layer. Alternatively, the microcell array may beprepared by a process including embossing a thermoplastic or thermosetprecursor layer coated on a conductor film with a pre-patterned malemold, followed by releasing the mold. The precursor layer may behardened by radiation, cooling, solvent evaporation, or other meansduring or after the embossing step. This novel micro-embossing method isdisclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,630,818. Solvent-resistant,thermomechanically stable microcells having a wide range of size, shape,pattern and opening ratio can be prepared by either one of the aforesaidmethods.

Preparation of a color EPID from a microcell assembly involvessequential selective opening and filling of predetermined microcellsubsets. The process typically includes laminating or coating thepre-formed microcells with a layer of positively working photoresist,selectively opening a certain number of the microcells by imagewiseexposing the positive photoresist, followed by developing thephotoresist, filling the opened microcells with a coloredelectrophoretic fluid, and sealing the filled microcells by a sealingprocess. These steps may be repeated to create sealed microcells filledwith electrophoretic fluids of different colors. Thus, the array may befilled with different colored compositions in predetermined areas toform a color EPID. Various known pigments and dyes are described belowand provide a wide range of color options for both solvent phase andsuspended particles.

Embossing.

Microcells suitable for use with the invention can be created withmicroembossing. A male mold may be prepared by any appropriate method,such as a diamond turn process or a photoresist process followed byeither etching or electroplating. A master template for the male moldmay be manufactured by any appropriate method, such as electroplating.With electroplating, a glass base is sputtered with a thin layer(typically 3000 Å) of a seed metal such as chrome inconel. It is thencoated with a layer of photoresist and exposed to UV. A mask is placedbetween the UV and the layer of photoresist. The exposed areas of thephotoresist become hardened. The unexposed areas are then removed bywashing them with an appropriate solvent. The remaining hardenedphotoresist is dried and sputtered again with a thin layer of seedmetal. The master is then ready for electroforming. A typical materialused for electroforming is nickel cobalt. Alternatively, the master canbe made of nickel by electroforming or electroless nickel deposition asdescribed in “Continuous manufacturing of thin cover sheet opticalmedia”, SPIE Proc. Vol. 1663, pp. 324 (1992). The floor of the mold istypically between about 50 to 400 microns. The master can also be madeusing other microengineering techniques including e-beam writing, dryetching, chemical etching, laser writing or laser interference asdescribed in “Replication techniques for micro-optics”, SPIE Proc. Vol.3099, pp. 76-82 (1997). Alternatively, the mold can be made byphotomachining using plastics, ceramics or metals.

The male mold thus prepared typically has protrusions between about 1 to500 microns, preferably between about 2 to 100 microns, and mostpreferred about 4 to 50 microns. The male mold may be in the form of abelt, a roller, or a sheet. For continuous manufacturing, the belt typeof mold is preferred.

Microcells may be formed either in a batchwise process or in acontinuous roll-to-roll process as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,933,098.The latter offers a continuous, low cost, high throughput manufacturingtechnology for production of compartments for use in electrophoretic orLCDs. Prior to applying a UV curable resin composition, the mold may betreated with a mold release to aid in the demolding process. The UVcurable resin may be degassed prior to dispensing and may optionallycontain a solvent. The solvent, if present, readily evaporates. The UVcurable resin is dispensed by any appropriate means such as, coating,dipping, pouring or the like, over the male mold. The dispenser may bemoving or stationary. A conductor film is overlaid the UV curable resin.Examples of suitable conductor film include transparent conductor ITO onplastic substrates such as polyethylene terephthalate, polyethylenenaphthalate, polyaramid, polyimide, polycycloolefin, polysulfone, epoxyand their composites. Pressure may be applied, if necessary, to ensureproper bonding between the resin and the plastic and to control thethickness of the floor of the microcells. The pressure may be appliedusing a laminating roller, vacuum molding, press device or any otherlike means. If the male mold is metallic and opaque, the plasticsubstrate is typically transparent to the actinic radiation used to curethe resin. Conversely, the male mold can be transparent and the plasticsubstrate can be opaque to the actinic radiation. To obtain goodtransfer of the molded features onto the transfer sheet, the conductorfilm needs to have good adhesion to the UV curable resin which shouldhave a good release property against the mold surface.

Photolithography.

Microcells can also be produced using photolithography.Photolithographic processes for fabricating a microcell array areillustrated in FIGS. 4A and 4B. As shown in FIGS. 4A and 4B, themicrocell array (40) may be prepared by exposure of a radiation curablematerial (41 a) coated by known methods onto a conductor electrode film(42) to UV light (or alternatively other forms of radiation, electronbeams and the like) through a mask (46) to form walls (41 b)corresponding to the image projected through the mask (46). The baseconductor film (42) is preferably mounted on a supportive substrate baseweb (43), which may comprise a plastic material.

In the photomask (46) in FIG. 4A, the dark squares (44) represent theopaque area and the space between the dark squares represents thetransparent area (45) of the mask (46). The UV radiates through thetransparent area (45) onto the radiation curable material (41 a). Theexposure is preferably performed directly onto the radiation curablematerial (41 a), i.e., the UV does not pass through the substrate (43)or base conductor (42) (top exposure). For this reason, neither thesubstrate (43), nor the conductor (42), needs to be transparent to theUV or other radiation wavelengths employed.

As shown in FIG. 4B, the exposed areas (41 b) become hardened and theunexposed areas (protected by the opaque area (44) of the mask (46)) arethen removed by an appropriate solvent or developer to form themicrocells (47). The solvent or developer is selected from thosecommonly used for dissolving or reducing the viscosity of radiationcurable materials such as methylethylketone (MEK), toluene, acetone,isopropanol or the like. The preparation of the microcells may besimilarly accomplished by placing a photomask underneath the conductorfilm/substrate support web and in this case the UV light radiatesthrough the photomask from the bottom and the substrate needs to betransparent to radiation.

Imagewise Exposure.

Still another alternative method for the preparation of the microcellarray of the invention by imagewise exposure is illustrated in FIGS. 5Aand 5B. When opaque conductor lines are used, the conductor lines can beused as the photomask for the exposure from the bottom. Durablemicrocell walls are formed by additional exposure from the top through asecond photomask having opaque lines perpendicular to the conductorlines. FIG. 5A illustrates the use of both the top and bottom exposureprinciples to produce the microcell array (50) of the invention. Thebase conductor film (52) is opaque and line-patterned. The radiationcurable material (51 a), which is coated on the base conductor (52) andsubstrate (53), is exposed from the bottom through the conductor linepattern (52) which serves as the first photomask. A second exposure isperformed from the “top” side through the second photomask (56) having aline pattern perpendicular to the conductor lines (52). The spaces (55)between the lines (54) are substantially transparent to the UV light. Inthis process, the wall material (51 b) is cured from the bottom up inone lateral orientation, and cured from the top down in theperpendicular direction, joining to form an integral microcell (57). Asshown in FIG. 5B, the unexposed area is then removed by a solvent ordeveloper as described above to reveal the microcells (57).

The first and second polymer mixtures may include additional polymers,such as thermoplastic elastomers, which have good compatibility with themicrocells and do not interact with the electrophoretic media. Examplesof useful thermoplastic elastomers include ABA, and (AB)n type ofdi-block tri-block, and multi-block copolymers wherein A is styrene,α-methylstyrene, ethylene, propylene or norbonene; B is butadiene,isoprene, ethylene, propylene, butylene, dimethylsiloxane or propylenesulfide; and A and B cannot be the same in the formula. The number, n,is ≧1, preferably 1-10. Particularly useful are di-block or hi-blockcopolymers of styrene or ox-methylstyrene such as SB(poly(styrene-b-butadiene)), SBS (poly(styrene-b-butadiene-b-styrene)),SIS (poly(styrene-b-isoprene-b-styrene)), SEBS(poly(styrene-b-ethylene/butylenes-b-stylene))poly(styrene-b-dimethylsiloxane-b-styrene),poly((α-methylstyrene-b-isoprene),poly(α-methylstyrene-b-isoprene-b-α-methylstyrene),poly(α-methylstyrene-b-propylene sulfide-b-α-methyl styrene),poly(α-methylstyrene-b-dimethylsiloxane-b-α-methylstyrene). A review ofthe preparation of the thermoplastic elastomers can be found in N. R.Legge. G Holden, and H. E. Schroeder ed., “Thermoplastic Elastomers”,Hansel. Publisher (1987). Commercially available styrene blockcopolymers such as Kraton D and G series (from Kraton Polymer, Houston,Tex.) are particularly useful. Crystalline rubbers such aspoly(ethylene-co-propylene-co-5-methylene-2-norbornene) or EPDM(ethylene-propylene-diene terpolymer) rubbers such as Vistalon 6505(from Exxon Mobil, Houston, Tex.) and their grafted copolymers have alsobeen found very useful.

The thermoplastic elastomers may he dissolved in a solvent or solventmixture which is immiscible with the display fluid in the microcells andexhibits a specific gravity less than that of the display fluid. Lowsurface tension solvents are preferred for the overcoating compositionbecause of their better wetting properties over the microcell walls andthe electrophoretic Solvents or solvent mixtures having a surfacetension lower than 35 dyne/cm are preferred. A surface tension of lowerthan 30 dyne/cm is more preferred. Suitable solvents include alkanes(preferably C₆₋₁₂ alkanes such as heptane, octane or Isopar solventsfrom Exxon Chemical Company, nonane, decane and their isomers),cycloalkanes (preferably C₆₋₁₂ cycloalkanes such as cyclohexane anddecalin and the like), alkylbezenes (preferably mono- or di-C₁₋₆ alkylbenzenes such as toluene, xylene and the like), alkyl esters (preferablyC₂₋₅ alkyl esters such as ethyl acetate, isobutyl acetate and the like)and C₃₋₅ alkyl alcohols (such as isopropanol and the like and theirisomers). Mixtures of alkylbenzene and alkane are particularly useful.

In addition to polymer additives, the first or second polymer mixturesmay also include wetting agents (surfactants). Wetting agents (such asthe FC surfactants from 3M Company, Zonyl fluorosurfactants from DuPont,fluoroacrylates, fluoromethacrylates, fluoro-substituted long chainalcohols, perfluoro-substituted long chain carboxylic acids and theirderivatives, and Silwet silicone surfactants from OSi, Greenwich, Conn.)may also be included in the composition to improve the adhesion of thesealant to the microcells and provide a more flexible coating process.Other ingredients including crosslinking agents (e.g., bisazides such as4,4′-diazidodiphenylmethane and2,6-di-(4-azidobenzal)-4-methylcyclohexanone), vulcanizers (e.g.,2-benzothiazolyl disulfide and tetramethylthiuram disulfide),multifunctional monomers or oligomers (e.g., hexanediol, diacrylates,trimethylolpropane, triacrylate, divinylbenzene, diallylphthalene),thermal initiators (e.g., dilauroryl peroxide, benzoyl peroxide) andphotoinitiators (e.g., isopropyl thioxanthone (ITX), Irgacure 651 andIrgacure 369 from Ciba-Geigy) are also highly useful to enhance thephysicomechanical properties of the sealing layer by crosslinking orpolymerization reactions during or after the overcoating process.

The preferred process of preparing electrophoretic microcells isillustrated schematically in FIGS. 6A-6D. As shown in FIG. 6A, themicrocell array (60) may be prepared by any of the alternative methodsdescribed above. The unfilled microcell array made by the methodsdescribed herein typically comprises a substrate web (63) upon which abase electrode (62) is deposited. The microcell walls (61) extend upwardfrom the substrate (63) to form the open cells. Once the microcellstructure is formed, the microcell structure is coated with a firstpolymer mixture comprising a phenethylamine (32). As shown in FIG. 6A,the mixture (32) coats the entire substrate web (63), as well as thebase electrode (62). However, in alternative embodiments, only the topsof the microcell walls (61) may be coated, thereby reducing the amountof polymer mixture (32) that is used.

Once the microcells are coated with the polymer mixture (32), themicrocells are filled with a suspension of charged pigment particles(65) in a medium (64). As shown in FIG. 6B, the polymer mixture (32)interacts with the suspension of charged pigment particles (65) in amedium (64). However, in alternative embodiments, where only the tops ofthe microcell walls are coated with the polymer mixture (32), (notshown) the suspension of charged pigment particles (65) in a medium (64)will not interact directly with the polymer mixture (32). In the exampleshown in FIGS. 6B-6D, the composition is the same in each cell, i.e., ina monochrome display. In carrying out the sealing process of the presentinvention, the microcells are preferably partially filled (to preventoverflow), which can be achieved by diluting the electrophoretic mediumwith a volatile solvent (such as acetone, methyl ethyl ketone,isopropanol, hexane, and perfluoro solvent FC-33 from 3M Co.,) andallowing the volatile solvent to evaporate. When a high boiling pointperfluoro solvent such as HT-200 (from Ausimont Colo., Thorofare, N.J.)is used as the continuous phase of the display fluid, a perfluorovolatile solvent such as FC-33 is particularly useful to control thelevel of partial filling.

As shown in FIG. 6C, after filling, the microcells are sealed byapplying a second mixture (36) that bonds with the first mixture (32).The second mixture (36) is typically overcooled onto the (mostly) filledmicrocells and dried on the display fluid, i.e., the suspension ofcharged pigment particles (65) in a medium (64). In some embodiments,the sealing process may involve exposure to heat, dry hot air, or UVradiation. It is notable that the second mixture (36) is mostly inert tothe display fluid, however it bonds strongly with the first mixture (32)which includes a phenethylamine, as described above. Accordingly, thefinal microcell structure is mostly impervious to leaks and able towithstand flexing without delamination of the sealing layers (32) and(36).

In some embodiments, as shown in FIG. 6D, the sealed array ofelectrophoretic microcell cells (60) is laminated with a secondconductive film (67), preferably by pre-coating the conductor (67) withan adhesive layer which may be a pressure sensitive adhesive, a hot meltadhesive, or a heat. moisture, or radiation curable adhesive. Thelaminate adhesive may be post-cured by radiation such as UV through thetop conductor film if the latter is transparent to the radiation. Inother embodiments, an active matrix of electrodes may be bonded directlyto the sealed array of electrophoretic microcell cells (60).

Similar techniques can be used to fabricate multi-color displayscomprising electrically charged particles disposed in a fluid, whereinthe particles move through the fluid under the influence of an electricfield. For example, as shown in FIG. 7A, an electrophoretic display canbe constructed having three types of pigment particles dispersed in adielectric solvent or solvent mixture. For ease of illustration, thethree types of pigment particles may be referred to as white particles(11), black particles (12) and colored particles (13), as shown in FIGS.7A and 7B. However, it is understood that the scope of the inventionbroadly encompasses pigment particles of any colors, and more than threetypes of pigment particles may be included in the display. For example,a display may comprise red, green, and blue pigments, or cyan, yellow,and magenta pigments, or any combination of these colors.

In the embodiments of FIGS. 7A and 7B, the display fluid is sandwichedbetween two electrode layers. One of the electrode layers is a commonelectrode (14) which is a transparent electrode layer (e.g., ITO),spreading over the entire top of the display device. The other electrodelayer (15) is a layer of sub-pixel electrodes (15 a). The sub-pixelelectrodes are described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,046,228, the content ofwhich is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. It is notedthat while active matrix driving with a thin film transistor (TFT)backplane is mentioned for the layer of pixel electrodes, the scope ofthe present invention encompasses other types of electrode addressing aslong as the electrodes serve the desired functions. In some embodiments,each microcell will be addressed by a sub-pixel electrode (15 a). Inthese embodiments, a sub-pixel (15) may include a plurality ofmicrocells, addressed by a plurality of sub-pixels, where each sub-pixelcan make only a limited range of colors. When such sub-pixels arecombined into a pixel, however, the pixel can provide a full colorgamut. In alternative embodiments, e.g., as shown in FIG. 7B, amicrocell may be addressable by more than one pixel electrode. Thearrangement in 7B reduces the need to carefully co-register theelectrodes and the microcell locations during assembly.

In some embodiments, the white particles (11) are formed from aninorganic pigment, such as TiO₂, ZrO₂, ZnO, Al₂O₃, Sb₂O₃, BaSO₄, PbSO₄or the like. In some embodiments, the black particles (12), are formedfrom CI pigment black 26 or 28 or the like (e.g., manganese ferriteblack spinel or copper chromite black spinel) or carbon black.Additional pigment particles may be of colors such as red, green, blue,magenta, cyan or yellow. The pigments for this type of particles mayinclude, but are not limited to, CI pigment PR 254, PR122, PR149, PG36,PG58, PG7, PB28, PB15:3, PY138, PY150, PY155 or PY20. Those are commonlyused organic pigments described in color index handbook “New PigmentApplication Technology” (CMC Publishing Co, Ltd, 1986) and “Printing InkTechnology” (CMC Publishing Co, Ltd, 1984). Specific examples includeClariant Hostaperm Red D3G 70-EDS, Hostaperm Pink E-EDS, PV fast redD3G, Hostaperm red D3G 70, Hostaperm Blue B2G-EDS, Hostaperm YellowH4G-EDS, Hostaperm Green GNX, BASF Irgazine red L 3630, Cinquasia Red L4100 HD, and Irgazin Red L 3660 HD; Sun Chemical phthalocyanine blue,phthalocyanine green, diarylide yellow or diarylide AAOT yellow.

The percentages of the three types of pigment particles in the fluid mayvary. For example, the black particle may take up about 0.1% to 10%,preferably 0.5% to 5% by volume of the electrophoretic fluid; the whiteparticle may take up about 1% to 50%, preferably 5% to 15% by volume ofthe fluid; and the colored particle may take up about 2% to 20%,preferably 4% to 10% by volume of the fluid. There may be otherparticulate matters in the fluid which are included as additives toenhance performance of the display device, such as switching speed,imaging bistability and reliability.

The media solvent in which the pigment particles are suspended may beclear and colorless or colored. The solvent preferably has a lowviscosity and a dielectric constant in the range of about 2 to about 30,preferably about 2 to about 15 for high particle mobility. Examples ofsuitable dielectric solvent include hydrocarbons such as isopar,decahydronaphthalene (DECALIN), 5-ethylidene-2-norbornene, fatty oils,paraffin oil, silicon fluids, aromatic hydrocarbons such as toluene,xylene, phenylxylylethane, dodecylbenzene or alkylnaphthalene,halogenated solvents such as perfluorodecalin, perfluorotoluene,perfluoroxylene, dichlorobenzotrifluoride, 3,4,5-trichlorobenzotrifluoride, chloropentafluoro-benzene, dichlorononane orpentachlorobenzene, and perfluorinated solvents such as FC-43, FC-70 orFC-5060 from 3M Company, St. Paul Minn., low molecular weight halogencontaining polymers such as poly(perfluoropropylene oxide) from TCIAmerica, Portland, Oreg., poly(chlorotrifluoro-ethylene) such asHalocarbon Oils from Halocarbon Product Corp., River Edge, N.J.,perfluoropolyalkylether such as Galden from Ausimont or Krytox Oils andGreases K-Fluid Series from DuPont, Del., polydimethylsiloxane basedsilicone oil from Dow-corning (DC-200).

In some embodiments, two of the three types of pigment particles carryopposite charge polarities and the third type of pigment particles isslightly charged. For example, if the black particles are positivelycharged and the white particles are negatively charged, and then thecolored pigment particles are slightly charged. In other words, in thisexample, the charge carried by the black and the white particles is muchmore intense than the charge carried by the colored particles. Inaddition, the third type of particles which carries a slight charge hasa charge polarity which is the same as the charge polarity carried byeither one of the other two types of the stronger charged particles.

The three types of pigment particles may have varying sizes. In oneembodiment, one of the three types of pigment particles is larger thanthe other two types. It is noted that among the three types of pigmentparticles, the one type of particles which is slightly charged willpreferably have the larger size. For example, both the black and thewhite particles are relatively small and their sizes (tested throughdynamic light scattering) may range from about 50 nm to about 800 nm andmore preferably from about 200 nm to about 700 nm, and in this example,the colored particles which are slightly charged, preferably are about 2to about 50 times and more preferably about 2 to about 10 times largerthan the black particles and the white particles.

Examples

Adhesion and Color Gamut Measurements in Microcell Devices Sealed withPolydopamine (PDA) and Poly(Vinylpyrrolidone) Mixtures.

Photo-patterned microcell substrates were prepared as discussed withrespect to FIGS. 4A- and 4B and cut into strips with dimensions of 5×13inches. (These microcells are referred to as photopolymer microcells“PP” below.) The microcell strips were plasma treated for 30 secondswith 100 W of 5 sccm 02 at 200 mTorr. After plasma treatment, the stripswere curled with microcell openings facing inwards and placed inside a 1L polypropylene (PP) bottle. A 200 ml solution of 4.76 wt %poly(vinylpyrrolidone) (PVP; 40,000 Mn) in DI H₂O was buffered topH=8.25 with tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane (TRIS). Polydopamine (PDA;400 mg, solid), was added and allowed to dissolve for 1 to 3 min forminga light pink, clear, solution. The PVP/PDA solution was transferred tothe 1 L PP bottle containing the microcell strip, sealed, and rolledovernight using a laboratory roller. After rolling, the brown PVP/PDAsolution was poured off and the microcell strip was washed with 1 L DIH₂O twice, rinsed with DI H₂O, and then dried in stream of N₂. ThePVP/PDA treated microcell strips were then filled with anelectrophoretic medium including colored pigments and sealed by applyinga 2.5 wt/wt % aqueous solution of hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC) tothe filled microcell strips. The sealed strips were then used asadhesion test samples measuring adhesion and 2×4 electro-optic pixels toevaluate color gamut.

The sealed microcells produced above were evaluated for the amount ofpeel force required to cause delamination using an Instron test rigconfigured for peel testing (Instron Corporation, Norwood, Mass.). Thesealed PP microcells were also compared to PP microcells sealed inaccordance with prior art methods, e.g., as described in U.S. PatentPublication No. 2007/0243332, which is incorporated by reference. Thissealing method is denoted as “STD” in FIG. 8. For further comparison,microcells constructed from a single layer of a polyethyleneterephthalate (PET), indium tin oxide (ITO), and dry film resist werealso sealed using the PDA/PVP formulation described above. Thisalternative construction of microcells is referred to as photoresist“PR” in FIG. 8. The two types of microcells are notably different inthat the PP microcells have a layer of photopolymer over the PET/ITOlayer, whereas the PR microcells allow the PDA/PVP formulation to bonddirectly to the PET/ITO layer.

FIG. 8 shows peel strength tests of microcell materials filled withcolored electrophoretic media and sealed with the above methods, orusing prior art methods. In FIG. 8, the top two bars (HPMC/PP, Aqua-LockHigh and HPMC/PP, Aqua-Lock Low) represent PP microcells coated withPDA/PVP mixtures and then sealed with hydroxypropylmethylcellulose(HPMC). “High” and “Low” denote the concentration of PVP and PDA and thecuring time, as shown in Table 1, below. The PDA/PVP mixture is labeledthroughout the data with the moniker “Aqua-Lock.”

TABLE 1 Concentrations and cure times for PDA/PVP mixtures (“Aqua-Lock”)[PDA] [PVP] Cure Time Low 0.53 mM 0.48% (wt/wt)  1 hour High 2.11 mM4.76% (wt/wt) 22 hoursThe smaller middle bars corresponds to sealing a PP microcell sampleusing only hydroxypropylmethylcellulose deposited onto filled microcells(HPMC/PP); sealing a PR microcell sample by coating with a Low PDA/PVPmixture and then sealing with HPMC (HPMC/PR, Aqua-Lock Low); sealing aPR microcell sample using only hydroxypropylmethylcellulose depositedonto filled microcells (HPMC/PR); and sealing a PP microcell sampleusing the methods of U.S. Patent Publication No. 2007/0243332, which isincorporated herein by reference.

Reviewing the data of FIG. 8, it is clear that there is a significantdifference in the adhesive strength of an HPMC seal on a microcell whenthe microcell is coated with a polymer coating of the invention, e.g., aPDA/PVP mixture. Comparing HPMC/PP, Aqua-Lock High/Low to untreatedsamples (HPMC/PP), it is evident that treated samples were over 10 timesmore adhesive than un-treated samples. This same trend was evident whenthe tests were performed on PR microcell samples. While there was asmall improvement with greater concentrations and cure times for thePDA/PVP samples, both PDA/PVP samples had twice as much adhesivestrength as the state-of-the-art sealing methods, i.e., STD/PP.

The test cells were additionally evaluated for color performance. FIG. 9shows color gamut size when driving some of the test cells, describedabove, with a 40V waveform. As can be seen in FIG. 9, the microcell teststrips coated with the PDA/PVP mixture and sealed with HPMC demonstratedmarked improvement over microcells sealed with other compositions, e.g.,HPMC, alone, or hydroxyethylcellulose (HEC). In particular, the colorgamut for the PDA/PVP treated microcells was 1.7 times larger than thegamut for HPMC (alone) sealed test cells. Remarkably, the test cellscoated with PDA/PVP exhibited improved display characteristics inaddition to superior mechanical stability.

In addition to the improved gamut volume, the test cells coated withPDA/PVP and sealed with HPMC showed better symmetry in the a* vs. b*color gamut as shown in FIGS. 10A and 10B. Comparing gamut plots ofuncoated (HPMC only) microcells (FIG. 10A) to gamut plots of test cellscoated with PDA/PVP and sealed with HPMC (FIG. 10B), it is clear thatthe color range and the symmetry of the test cells with PDA/PVP isbetter. In particular, the yellow and red points in the a*b* plot forthe PDA/PVP-sealed microcells are closer to their targets, therebybroadening the gamut and increasing the gamut symmetry by stretching ittowards the upper-right quadrant of the a*b* plot. In comparison, theHPMC-only sealed devices have a gamut centered towards the lower leftquadrant. This difference in color symmetry was also visible to thenaked eye as a better balance between red and yellow colors in testpatterns (not shown).

It will be apparent to those skilled in the art that numerous changesand modifications can be made in the specific embodiments of theinvention described above without departing from the scope of theinvention. Accordingly, the whole of the foregoing description is to beinterpreted in an illustrative and not in a limitative sense.

1. A method of sealing a fluid within a container, comprising: providinga container having an opening; contacting the opening with a firstmixture comprising a phenethylamine and a first polymer, therebycreating a coating at the opening; adding a fluid to the container;contacting the opening with a second mixture, comprising a secondpolymer, wherein the first and second polymers interact to seal thecontainer.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the phenethylamine isdopamine, epinephrine, phenylephrine, norepinephrine,3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine, or 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid.
 3. Themethod of claim 1, wherein the first polymer is swellable.
 4. The methodof claim 3, wherein the swellable polymer is selected from the groupconsisting of pyrrolidones, polysaccharides, collagen, polyamides,polyesters, acrylates, polyurethanes, polyethers, and polyvinylalcohols.
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the first mixture has a pHof greater than
 7. 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the second polymeris hydrophilic.
 7. The method of claim 6, wherein the second polymer isselected from cellulose, methylcellulose, polyethylene glycol, polyvinylalcohols, acrylics, polyurethanes, and acrylamides.
 8. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the container is constructed from acrylates,(meth)acrylates, vinylethers, esters, epoxides, polyethyleneterephthalate (PET), high-density polyethylene (HDPE), polypropylene(PPE), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), or cellulose.
 9. The method of claim 1,wherein the container is a microcell, a delayed release drugformulation, a chemical sensor, or a blister pack.
 10. The method ofclaim 1, further comprising contacting the opening with a coveringhaving a coating comprising the phenethylamine and the first polymer.11. The method of claim 1, wherein the fluid is a hydrophobic mixture.12. The method of claim 11, wherein the hydrophobic mixture comprisescharged pigments.
 13. The method of claim 1, wherein the second mixturecontacts the fluid.
 14. The method of claim 1, further comprisingpretreating the container with a process selected from chemicalcleaning, chemical etching, electron beam irradiation, ion beamirradiation, or plasma etching.
 15. The method of claim 1, furthercomprising drying the first and second mixtures.
 16. The method of claim15, wherein drying comprises heating or exposing to a dessicant.
 17. Themethod of claim 1, further comprising laminating a release sheet to thesealed container.
 18. The method of claim 1, further comprisingattaching an electrode to the container after the container is sealed.19. The method of claim 1, wherein the phenethylamine is of Formula I:

Wherein n is 1 or 2, provided that if n is 2, the hydroxyl groupscoupled to the aromatic ring are ortho to each other, and wherein eachof R₁, R₂, R₃, R₄, R₅, and R₆ is independently selected from the groupconsisting of a thiol, a primary amine, a secondary amine, a nitrile, analdehyde, an imidazole, an anazide, a halide, a hydrogen, a hydroxyl, acarboxylic acid, an aldehyde, a carboxylic ester or a carboxamide.
 20. Alayered display medium comprising an electrophoretic material includinga plurality of electrically charged particles disposed in a fluid andcapable of moving through the fluid under the influence of an electricfield, wherein two layers of the display are joined with a mixturecomprising a phenethylamine and a swellable polymer.